Perfluoroalkyl and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances

Primary reference(s)

WHO, 2023. PFOS and PFOA in Drinking-water: Background document for development of WHO Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality (WHO). Accessed 16 November 2024

Annotations

Key relevant UN convention / multilateral treaty

PFAS are included in the Stockholm Convention. The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants was adopted by the Conference of Plenipotentiaries on 22 May 2001 in Stockholm, Sweden (UNEP, 2001). The Convention entered into force on 17 May 2004. By September 2019, 183 UN member states and the European Union had adopted the Stockholm Convention.

Drivers

1. Widespread Industrial Use: PFAS chemicals have been used in a wide range of industries due to their water- and oil-repellent properties, chemical stability, and resistance to heat. This widespread use has led to their persistent presence in the environment;
2. Regulatory Gaps and Historical Use: PFAS were largely used before their full health and environmental risks were understood. In the past, chemicals like PFOA and PFOS were not well-regulated, and manufacturers did not initially recognize their long-term persistence;
3. Environmental Persistence: PFAS are resistant to environmental degradation, leading to bioaccumulation in ecosystems. Once released into the environment, they can persist for decades or longer. 

Impacts

PFAS is in general not an acute toxic substance to human health in the concentrations that normally surround humans. But given its effect on a long-term basis or in high doses due to e.g. accidents at chemical industry plants or industrial sites using PFAS in their production - such exposure could pose an increased risk to human health in a disaster situation. PFAS is so widespread - and is/has been used in many products - and it is found all over the world - including many inland water streams and rivers etc. - and in the sea - so when flooding occurs - due to heavy storms, increasing due to climatic change - PFAS contamination will follow. Therefore, monitoring is vital. 

1. Health Impacts: PFAS are linked to a range of adverse health outcomes, including developmental, immune, liver, and kidney problems, and may be carcinogenic (EEA, 2023; IARC, 2025; CDC, no date).
2. Environmental Impacts: PFAS compounds can contaminate soil, water, and wildlife, leading to widespread environmental contamination that is difficult to remediate (EEA 2024).
3. Economic Impacts: The economic cost of PFAS contamination includes the cost of water treatment, cleanup of contaminated sites, and potential litigation. 

Multi-hazard context

The figure below summarises common interactions between PFAS and other hazards. Particular note should be made of fire as a multi-hazard context. Many fire-fighting foams contain PFAS, which raises the concern that response to one disaster situation could precipitate another (related to PFAS, in this case). 

This information should be used with caution and not be solely relied upon in Disaster Risk Management, particularly as some interactions may not have been included. Note that hazardous events occurring together or locally in space or time may not necessarily cause, amplify or be otherwise related to each other. Specific examples of multi-hazard context can be found in the ‘Hazard drivers’ and ‘Impacts’ sections above.

Multi-hazard diagram

Risk Management

1. Regulatory Actions: Governments around the world are increasing efforts to regulate PFAS and reduce exposure to these chemicals. The EU has set drinking water standards for PFAS, specifically PFOS + PFOA, limiting their presence to 0.1 µg/L (100 ng/L). The European Food Safety Authority has a significant programme of work related to PFAS (EFSA, 2024) Stockholm Convention. PFOS has been listed under the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs), which regulates the production and use of certain persistent chemicals.
2. Technological Solutions for Remediation: Various technologies are being explored or used to address PFAS contamination, especially in drinking water and soil (EPA, no date). 
3. Public Health and Awareness Campaigns: Increasing public awareness of PFAS risks is a key strategy in risk management (e.g. EWG, no date). 

Early warning systems for PFAS contamination are critical for protecting public health and the environment. They rely on environmental monitoring, advanced detection technologies, public health advisories, and regulatory frameworks to identify contamination before it reaches dangerous levels. These systems also require collaboration across sectors and regions to address global contamination issues effectively. Key players such as the EPA, WHO, OECD, and regional governments are taking significant steps to build and enhance early warning systems to prevent and mitigate PFAS-related risks.

Key Components of Early Warning Systems for PFAS are:

1. Environmental Monitoring;
2. Regulatory Surveillance and Health Impact Studies;
3. Public Data Platforms and Transparency;
4. Early Detection Technologies;
5. International Collaboration 

Monitoring

The section and the table below offer an overview of monitoring PFAS. This information can be used for forecasting within a national early warning system (EWS). Since EWS capacities and processes differ across countries, the most current and specific information regarding EWS should be obtained from the appropriate national or regional agency/authority responsible for disaster management.