A finite element investigation into the in-plane load bearing behaviour of traditional timber-dry stone (Kath-Kuni) masonry walls

This study presents a detailed finite element investigation into the in‑plane load‑bearing behaviour of traditional Kath‑Kuni timber–dry‑stone masonry walls, a construction typology widely used in the seismically active Himalayan region. Because these structures form part of the built heritage of communities exposed to recurrent earthquakes, the research directly supports disaster risk reduction by clarifying how their components respond to lateral loading. The paper explains why improved understanding of these mechanisms is needed, how a high‑fidelity three‑dimensional finite element framework was developed and validated, and for whom the findings are relevant—namely engineers, conservation specialists, and DRR practitioners working in mountainous regions of northern India, Pakistan, Afghanistan and Bhutan. 

The report recommends strengthening strategies that preserve or enhance vertical clamping, improve stone–stone interface quality, and ensure the integrity of Kadil connections, as these elements govern in‑plane resistance. Lessons learned include the limited contribution of Maanwi joints to in‑plane capacity, the near‑linear increase in strength with pre‑compression, and the sensitivity of wall behaviour to friction at stone interfaces. The authors propose that future solutions combine refined material characterisation, full‑scale testing, and modelling of coupled in‑plane/out‑of‑plane seismic actions to support safer conservation and retrofitting of Kath‑Kuni buildings across the Himalayan region.