Tunnels are artificial confined underground structures, which are used for different purposes; where, for example, collapses, fires, explosions and water ingress may damage tunnel facilities and cause injuries and human casualties, resulting in severe social harm (Adapted from Zafirovski et al., 2018 and Chien and Chao, 2021).
A building high-rise cladding fire hazard occurs when combustible materials such as cladding on a high-rise building greatly increases risk in the event of a fire and can have a catastrophic outcome (adapted from Rockpanel, no date)
Drain and sewer flooding is said to occur when sewage or foul water leaks from the sewerage system (through pipes, drains or manholes) or floods up through toilets, sinks or showers inside a building (Priestly, 2016).
Structural failure corresponds to the exceedance of ultimate limit state in many of the load-carrying elements, which compromise the structural stability of the building (Rossetto, 2013).
Man-made reservoirs, sometimes called artificial lakes, are important water sources in many countries around the world. In contrast to natural processes of lake formation, reservoirs are artificial, usually formed by constructing a dam across a river or by diverting a part of the river flow and storing the water in a reservoir. Reservoir flooding occurs as an uncontrolled release of water if a dam or reservoir fails (adapted from UNEP, 2000 and Defra and EA, 2014).
Bridge failure is the inability of a bridge, or its components, to perform as specified by its design and construction requirements (Wardhana and Hadipriono, 2003).
Note: This definition includes bridges that have totally collapsed, partially collapsed and those that experienced distress, such as, exhibiting excessive deformation.
Dam failure is the uncontrolled release of water due to structural collapse, foundation instability, or overtopping, posing risks on people and property downstream (ICOLD, 2023, mentioned in Moreno-Rodenas et al., 2025).
Supply chain failure refers to an event in the supply chain that disrupts the flow of materials on their journey from initial suppliers through to final customers (Walters, 2007).
Critical Infrastructure failure is defined as the failure in one or more of the physical structures, facilities, networks and other assets which provide services that are essential to the social and economic functioning of a community or society (UNGA, 2016).
Nuclear plant failure occurs when the accidental melting of the core of a nuclear reactor results in a complete or partial core collapse (adapted from USNRC, 1975).
