Why do some countries build safer? Economic constraints, disaster learning, and the two-stage housing quality ladder

This paper examines why some countries achieve safer, more disaster‑resilient housing than others at similar income levels. Using data from 150 countries, it introduces a two‑stage housing quality ladder showing that poverty reduction and basic governance drive the elimination of fragile housing, while national income, construction‑sector institutions and overall governance determine progress toward robust, engineered buildings. 

It also finds that countries learn from disasters in hazard‑specific ways, with earthquake experience most consistently improving resilience—especially where governance is strong. These insights highlight the need for tailored disaster‑risk‑reduction strategies that match a country’s development stage and institutional capacity.